Functional Human Anatomy

Postural abnormality

Lordosis

Tight muscles

Hip flexors, erector spinae

Weak muscles

Abdominals, hamstrings, gluteals

Suggested corrective exercises (Strengthening and Stretching)

Stretch: hip flexors and spinal extensors

Strengthen: abdominal, hamstring, and gluteals

Postural abnormality

Kyphosis/ Rounded Shoulders

Tight muscles

Pectoralis major, pectoralis minor, anterior deltoids, latissimus dorsi

Weak muscles

Rhomboids, rear deltoids, middle/lower trapezius

Suggested corrective exercises (Strengthening and Stretching)

Stretch: chest stretch, anterior deltoids, lats

Strengthen: rhomboids, rear deltoids, trapezius

Postural abnormality

Winged Scapula

Tight muscles

Pectoralis major, pectoralis minor, subscapularis, latissimus dorsi

Weak muscles

Serratus anterior, rhomboids

Suggested corrective exercises(Strengthening and Stretching)

Stretch: pectorals, lats, and shoulder mobility work

Strengthen: seated row, scapula fixation work, wall pushes (scapula pro/retraction)

Sciatica

Spinal stenosis, the narrowing of the spinal canal of the lower back or degenerative disc diseases, which is a breakdown of the discs that act as cushions between the vertebrae

The muscle is often overworked and in spasm, resulting in compression on the nerve. Tight groin muscles and weak hip abductors.

Neck pain

Aching and stiffness in the shoulders and neck

A slumped position, with rounded shoulders and the neck protruding forwards. Shortening of the chest muscles and weakening of the small, postural upper back and neck muscles, which work to pull the shoulders back. leads to the larger back and neck muscles, i.e. trapezius and the rhomboids, working harder and becoming tight and achy as they try to hold the shoulders back.

Patellofemoral knee pain

This condition occurs due to overuse injury, which leads to non-specific pain at the front of the knee.

?

Lower back pain

Shoulder impingement

1. Diminished muscle strength and endurance

2. Limited flexibility

3. Increased muscle tension and tone

4. Limited function

Joint complex

Movement

Range of motion

Shoulder joint

Abduction

Adduction

Flexion

Extension/Hyper Extension

0-150-180°

0-30°

0-150-180°

0-45-60°

Elbow joint

Extension

Flexion

0°

0-145°

Hip joint

Flexion

Adduction

Abduction

Extension/Hyper Extension

0-125-145°

0-20-30°

0-40-45°

0-10-20°

Knee joint

Flexion

Extension

0-125-145°

0-10°

Ankle joint

Dorsi Flexion

Plantar Flexion

0-20°

0-45-50°

Wrist joint

?

?

Muscles

Movement description

Muscle involved

Agonist

Primarily causes movement due to its shortening contraction. It is also known as the ‘prime mover’ in an exercise as the muscle is predominantly responsible for the movement occurring.

An example of an agonist would be the biceps brachii during a bicep curl’s concentric (or lifting) phase.

Antagonist

Opposes the agonist during an exercise by lengthening or relaxing to allow the movement to occur.

During the same bicep curl example, the tricep muscle would be the antagonist during the concentric phase as this muscle needs to relax and lengthen for movement of the elbow flexion to occur.

Synergist

Works in coordination with an agonist muscle to generate movement. It is like a helper muscle that indirectly assists with the movement.eg. brachioradialis and brachialis

Fixator

Stabilises to eliminate the unwanted movement of an agonist’s origin. In other words, it acts to fixate the moving joint in one place.eg. Subscapularis, Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, and Teres minor muscles (Rotator Cuff)

Anterior Deltoids, Upper and middle Trapezius

Wolff’s law refers to bone modelling and remodelling. It states that bone will adapt to the loads that it is placed under. If the load increases on a particular bone, that bone will remodel itself over time to become stronger, thereby coping better with the load it is under. Loads can be placed on bone through impact and/or muscle contraction. The higher the intensity of impact and/or muscular contraction, the greater the effects on bone remodelling/density.

Factor that affects the centre of gravity

Description of how posture is affected

Pregnancy

Muscles tend to shorten and tighten, such as the hip flexors, rectus femoris, and spinal erectors.

Muscles that tend to lengthen due to under use include the glutes, hamstrings, and abdominals and obliques.

Overweight

Inappropriate footwear

?

Poor work practices
(office worker)

Factor that affects agility

Description of how it impacts agility

Fine motor skills

Gross motor skills

Hand eye skills

Increase pronation of foot and ankle complex

Simply put over-pronation means there is too much pronation or that the hindfoot bones are in the pronated position longer than they are supposed to be while standing or walking. Hyperpronation stems from a loss of stability of the ankle bone on the heel bone.

Increase supination of foot and ankle

Oversupination also called hyper-supination is far more rare than overpronation and causes problems for runners and other athletes, as in this position the foot is less able to provide shock absorption. Over supination usually causes over-use type injuries, occurring most frequently in runners. A foot which oversupinate's, underpronates. Pronation allows the foot to absorb shock and mould to the surface of the ground. Therefore in oversupinated feet, shock absorption is reduced. The stresses normally absorbed by the foot are then passed up the lower limb.

Oversupination also causes an increased external (lateral) rotation force to be placed on the shin, knee and thigh which places additional stress on the muscles, tendons and ligaments of the lower limb.

Hyperextension of knees

Hyperextension of the knee is a common injury among athletes across a wide variety of sports. The condition can be debilitating, but the severity of the condition will vary based on the cause of injury and each individual athlete’s body. In most cases, hyperextension of the knee will have obvious symptoms including swelling, reduced range of motion, sharp localized pain, and instability on the affected leg.

Lateral tilt of pelvis

Simply put, the lateral pelvic tilt is a condition causing one side of your hip to appear higher or lower when compared to the normal hip position.

Medicine identifies these two conditions as:

• Hip hiking – where, on one side, hip is raised above the neutral position and
• Hip dropping – where the hip drops lower than neutral position

Forward head posture

Forward head posture (FHP) is the anterior positioning of the cervical spine. It is a posture problem that is caused by several factors including sleeping with the head elevated too high, extended use of computers and cellphones, lack of developed back muscle strength.

Rotated patella

???

Class of lever

Definition

First class levers

Fulcrum in the middle: effort is applied on one side of the fulcrum, and the resistance is located on the other side. For example, a crowbar, a pair of scissors, a seesaw.

Second class levers

Resistance in the middle: effort is applied on one side of the resistance, and the fulcrum is located on the other side. For example, a wheelbarrow, a nutcracker.

Third class levers

Effort in the middle: resistance is on one side of the effort, and the fulcrum is located on the other side. For example, a pair of tweezers, the human mandible.

Skills

Two types of exercise

Balance

Agility

Power

Speed

Reaction time

Co-ordination

Proprioception

Musculoskeletal anatomy and physiology

Changes and improvements in response to fitness

Skeleton

Skeletal muscle will increase in strength by enlarging the cell size.

Joints

Increase production of synovial fluid, which keeps joints lubricated.

Synovial fluid increase the range of movement

Cellular structure of muscle fibre

There are a number of changes that occur in cellular structure of muscle fibres, including:

• Increase in the size and quantity of mitochondria in the cells
• Increase in activity of enzymes in the tricarboxylic acid cycle (which is also known as the TCA cycle, the Krebs cycle and as the citric acid cycle), a series of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions that form a key part of aerobic respiration in cells
• Increase in fatty acid oxidation (fatty acid oxidation in mitochondria provides energy to cells when glucose levels are low).

Sliding filaments
(actin and myosin)

Enhanced muscle protein synthesis as a result of increased fitness levels there will be an incorporation of these proteins into cells to cause hypertrophy. Because there are more potential power strokes associated with increased actin and myosin concentrations, the muscle can exhibit greater strength.

Anatomical position

Superior

Inferior

Proximal

Distal

Lateral

Medial

Superficial

Deep

Sagittal

Frontal

Horizontal

Elbow

Knee

Shoulder

Hip

Wrist

Ankle

Biceps

Tibialis

Anterior deltoid

Latissimus dorsi

Pronator teres

Hamstring

Triceps

Tensa fascia lata

Scapula

Elevation

Depression

Upward rotation

Downward rotation

Protraction

Shoulder

Shoulder flexion

Shoulder extension

Shoulder adduction

Shoulder abduction

Horizontal flexion/adduction

Hip

Hip flexion

Hip extension

Hip adduction

Hip abduction

Upper Skeletal

Muscle

Location

Function

Lower Skeletal

Muscle

Location

Function

Reciprocal inhibition describes the process of muscles on one side of a joint relaxing to accommodate contraction on the other side of that joint. Joints are controlled by two opposing sets of muscles, extensors and flexors, which must work in synchrony for smooth movement.

Joint

Movement

Example

Gliding

The bones in the joint slide past each other.

Metacarpal & metatarsal

Hinge

Two bones that open and close in one direction only (along one plane) like a door.

Knee joint

Pivot

One bone swivels around the ring formed by another bone.

Elbow joint

Saddle

Permits movement back and forth and from side to side but not a rotation like the ball and socket joint.

The base of the thumb

Condyloid

Permit movement without rotation.

Jaw and finger joints

Ball and socket

Permits the greatest range of movement, which occurs around an indefinite number of axes that have a common centre. The round-shaped head of one bone lodges in the spherical cavity of another.

Shoulder and hip

Stretching

Benefits

Risks

Static (passive and active)

Dynamic

The function of heart valves

Tricuspid valve -

a) Closes off the upper right chamber (or atrium) that holds blood coming in from the body.

b) Opens to allow blood to flow from the top right chamber to the lower right chamber (or from right atrium to right ventricle).

c) Prevents the back flow of blood from the ventricle to the atrium when blood is pumped out of the ventricle.

2. Pulmonary valve –

a) Closes off the lower right chamber (or right ventricle).

b) Opens to allow blood to be pumped from the heart to the lungs (through the pulmonary artery) where it will receive oxygen.

3. Aortic valve –

a) Closes off the lower left chamber that holds the oxygen-rich blood before it is pumped out to the body.

b) Opens to allow blood to leave the heart (from the left ventricle to the aorta and on to the body).

Coronary circulation

?

Increase in synovial fluid production

The bones and joints are avascular, that is, they have little or no blood supply. To keep joints healthy, stop cartilage from drying out and keep cartilage lubricated and nourished, the joints produce an oil-like substance called synovial fluid.

Increase joint range of motion

Exercise increases the production of synovial fluid, which keeps joints lubricated and increases the range of movement available at the joints in the short term.

Increase bone density

Weight-bearing exercise such as strength training and running put stress through your bones. In response to this stress, bodies produce cells called osteoblasts, which build new bone and make bones stronger and denser.

Stronger ligament

When exposed to regular exercise, ligaments become stronger and more resistant to injury.

28. Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS) is exercise related muscle pain. It develops after excessive and unaccustomed exercise. It is particularly prevalent if that exercise has an eccentric component. Eccentric exercise is exercise where the muscles are contracting whilst lengthening – (for example downhill running, longer distance running, plyometric exercises and landing drills, down phase of a bicep curl).

29. DOMS is caused by myofibril tears (muscle strains). The microtrauma results in an inflammatory response with intramuscular fluid and electrolyte shifts. We do know that biochemical markers (such as creatine kinase and lactic dehydrogenase) are found in the blood of DOMS sufferers, which is consistent with muscle fibre disruption. Swelling, altered muscle firing patterns and pain are thought to be the reason why muscle strength, motions and function is impaired in DOMS sufferers.

• To minimise development of DOMS the following suggestions need to be followed:
• Take it slow and gradually build up the amount of exercise you do in your program – remember that Rome wasn't built in a day.
• Only increase your sets, reps and weights by more than 10% per week.
• Be aware of the amount of eccentric exercise you are including in your workouts.
• Ensure you do a thorough cool down following your workout – many of us would have seen sportspeople doing gentle running and cool down drills after their games – this is one of the reasons why.
• Long distance runners should incorporate eccentric quadriceps training into their training.

Monitoring exercise intensity

Description

Talk test

The talk test is a simple way to measure relative intensity. In general, if you're doing moderate-intensity activity you can talk, but not sing, during the activity. If you're doing vigorous-intensity activity, you will not be able to say more than a few words without pausing for a breath.

Rate of perceived exertion

Rated Perceived Exertion (RPE) Scale. The RPE scale is used to measure the intensity of your exercise. The RPE scale runs from 0 – 10. The numbers below relate to phrases used to rate how easy or difficult you find an activity.

Heart rate monitoring

A heart rate monitor is a personal monitoring device that allows one to measure one's heart rate in real time. It is largely used by performers of various types of physical exercise and will allow the person to directly measure the degree of intensity of the physical activity.

Situations and settings

Physiological Responses

A single bout of exercise

Physical activity in various environmental conditions (heat, cold, and high altitude)

Long-term exercise programs

Sports physician

?

General practitioner

?

Physiotherapist

Assesses, diagnoses, and treats people with biomechanical issues such as injuries or pain. Treatments may include massage, exercise, applied heat, ultrasound, electrotherapy, and short-wave diathermy.

Exercise physiologist

Screens, tests, and prescribes appropriate exercise for individuals and groups. Specialises in exercise prescription for patients with chronic and complex conditions affecting the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems.

Remedial massage therapist

?

Chiropractor

Specialises in skeletal, muscular, and nervous conditions particularly related to the spinal column. They treat patients by using manipulation and specific spinal adjustments in order to correct misalignments.

Osteopath

Osteopathy links the structure of the body and the way it functions. Osteopaths focus on how the skeleton, joints, muscles, nerves, circulation, connective tissue and internal organs function as a holistic unit. Osteopaths can identify important types of dysfunction in your body. Osteopathic treatment uses techniques such as stretching and massage for general treatment of the soft tissues (muscles, tendons and ligaments) along with mobilisation of specific joints and soft tissues.

Dietician

Delivers expert nutrition and dietary advice to groups and individuals.

Assesses an individual’s diet in order to help treat a wide range of conditions including diabetes, heart disease, cancers, gastrointestinal diseases, food allergies, and food intolerances as well as obesity.

Psychologist

Specialises in diagnosing and treating diseases of the mind, emotional disturbances, and behaviour problems. Talk therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy can be effective. If the client requires medication for depressants or anxiety, they should be referred to a psychiatrist.

Functional measure

Description

Goniometer

In physical therapy and occupational therapy, a goniometer is an instrument which measures range of motion joint angles of the body. This measurement instrument is a helpful, clinical tool that allows for objective measurements in order to accurately track progress in a rehabilitation program. When a patient has a decreased range of motion, a therapist will assess the joint before performing an intervention and will continue to use the tool to make sure that progress is made. These range of motion measurements can be taken at any joint and they typically involve some knowledge about the anatomy of the body, particularly bony landmarks. For example, when measuring the knee joint, the axis (point of rotation) would be placed on the lateral epicondyle of the femur, while the stationary arm would be lined up with the greater trochanter of the femur.

Plumb line

the plumb line is a type of assessment to measure abnormalities from a normal static posture.

Grid

The posture grid is a useful tool for posture assessment. Posture grids are designed to provide rapid visual cues of an individual's posture to aid in correcting postural deviations, and for education on proper posture. There are a range of different types, including:

Plurimeter

Is a handheld measuring instrument for determining surface or relative angles between surfaces. The device uses mechanical actions for calculating results. This type of technology is used to measure postural abnormalities.

Pressure biofeedback unit

Is a simple device which registers changing pressure in an air filled pressure cell. This allows body movement, especially spinal movement, to be detected during exercise. The unit consists of a combined gauge and inflation bulb connected to a pressure cell. The stabiliser is principally used for exercises that focus on the protection and stabilization of the joints. Research has shown these types of exercise are especially important for the prevention and treatment of low back and neck pain.

Photographic technology

Photographic and digitization procedure has been in use since a long time. It has been compared with the radiographic method for postural evaluation. Its reliability too has been tested. The following research article compares and contrasts the methods used for postural analysis.

Video analysis

Video has many applications in sports and science. Coaches and athletes are using the medium more and more to measure and correct technique, and to analyze team and individual performances. Video analysis software can also be used for gait analysis and biomechanics research, and in injury rehabilitation.

Tape measure

A measuring tape can generally be used to measure the height or length of one bony landmark to another. E.g.: leg length to assess for any leg length discrepancy.

Flexometer

The purpose of the flexometer is to measure the flexibility of a joint. This type of technique is usually used to prevent injuries and execution of many sporting movements. The equipment needed consists of a gravity needle and a strap which attaches to the limb. A inclinometer or clinometer can also be used to measure angles of slope. To perform the procedure of this test the flexometer is attached to the limb and the change in angle on the flexometer is noted from one extreme position to the next.

Privacy

The expression 'personal information' is defined in the Privacy Acts as information or an opinion (including information or an opinion forming part of a database), whether true or not, and whether recorded in a material form or not, about an individual whose identity is apparent, or can reasonably be ascertained, from the information or opinion.

Anti-discrimination

Exercise professionals shall not discriminate in their professional practice, on the basis of ethnicity, culture, impairment, language, age, gender, sexual preference, religion, political beliefs or status in society.

Work health and safety

Are a set of guidelines that the fitness professional need to abide by to run a business in the fitness industry.

Duty of care

All fitness professionals have a 'duty of care' to their clients when providing instruction or advice, to ensure that reasonable steps are taken so that harm that could reasonably be expected to occur is avoided.

Business licenses

Exercise professionals registered with Fitness Australia provide a variety of exercise services for a range of clientele across many varied settings. Competency to practice is represented through the registration category held and associated continuing education completed.

Consumer protection

The Fitness Industry Code of Practice has been developed to guide consumers in their dealings with fitness businesses.

Confidentiality

Beyond the necessary sharing of information with professional colleagues, exercise professionals are to safeguard confidential information relating to clients in accordance with privacy laws.

Recording client information

The exercise professional shall keep records and reports clearly and concisely for the information of clients, professional colleagues, legal purposes and to record fitness services.

Hygiene

Hygiene can refer to personal hygiene; which needs to appropriate when instructing a class or teaching 1:1. Hygiene can also refer to a gym based setting in which all machinery and facilities need to adhere to the work health and safety guidelines.

Emergency

Fitness business and professionals have a legal obligation to plan for and provide appropriate emergency care when these situations occur.

Standards of personal presentation

The personal trainer needs to be dressed professionally to undertake the training session.

Participants clothing and footwear

Participants must wear proper clothing and closed shoes to participate in physical activity.

Use, care, and maintenance of equipment

Maintaining the place of work and working environment under your control in a safe condition. Ensuring the safe use, handling, storage and transport of equipment & substances. Providing and maintaining “systems of work” (eg. policies and procedures) to ensure workplace safety.

• Seeing clearly while moving
• Identifying orientation with respect to gravity
• Determining direction and speed of movement
• Making automatic postural adjustments to maintain posture and stability in various conditions and activities